Newsletter N°1: Portrait of research on socio-economic disparities and racial discrimination in employment in Quebec
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Newsletter N°1: Portrait of research on socio-economic disparities and racial discrimination in employment in Quebec
GLOSSARY
Indicators studied
Participation rate: According to Employment Québec, the participation rate expressed as a percentage reports the labour force (people aged 15 and above) who were employed or who were unemployed, but looking for work, during the reference week. Retired people, people who are unwilling to work and people who are not actively looking for a job are considered inactive (Emploi Québec, 2020). A high participation rate, therefore, means that a significant proportion of the working-age population is employed or actively looking for a job.
Unemployment rate: The OECD (2020) defines the unemployed as individuals who are working age, but, without work; and, individuals who are available to work and who have completed specific steps in order to find work. Therefore, the unemployment rate is measured as the number of unemployed people as a percentage of the labour force.
Wage gaps: When comparing the income of men and women, significant differences are evident. (Couturier L. V, 2020). The wage gap between men and women, therefore, constitutes the difference in salary between the two groups and is measured in hourly, weekly, monthly or annual terms.
Visible minority :
According to the Employment Equity Act, visible minorities are “persons, other than Aboriginal peoples, who are non-Caucasian in race or non-white in colour”(including South Asians, Chinese, Black people, Filipinos, Latin Americans, Arabs, Southeast Asians, Asians, Koreans, Japanese.)
Racialized person:
A person who belongs in a real or imagined way, to a group having undergone a racialization process. Racialization is a political, social and mental process of alteration. We used a short definition of racialization in the first bulletin, and for the sake of consistency, the word “racialized “emphasizes the fact that race is not a biological imperative, rather, a social construction.
[1] Definition adapted from the League of Rights and Freedoms
INTRODUCTION
In Canada, racial discrimination is regulated and sanctioned by law, but it remains hidden socially, and sometimes politically (Renaud et al, 2004). Its “basic” forms can result in discriminatory behavior where it is generally difficult to identify the links or to determine when the behavior began. Social relations are forged by history and power and certainly generate discrimination or forms of segregation; however, racism appears “decentered” through the various meanings assigned to it, through social structures and due to social location (Renaud and Martin, 2006).
Several studies support the hypothesis of racial discrimination against members of racialized minorities in Canada. These studies show that despite the fact that people from racialized minorities often have high levels of qualification, they obtain jobs that are less valued and have lower incomes than other Canadians (Kamanzi, 2012). According to Eid (2012), even with a similar profile, a candidate belonging to the majority population is at least 60% more likely to get an interview than a candidate who is a member of a racialized minority group; and a little more than one in three times, the latter risk being ignored by the employer on a discriminatory basis (Eid, 2012).
The racialization of social relations in the workplace is reflected by the fact that employers often hire racialized minority youth, born in Quebec, for the least desirable jobs, for which they presume that the youth are “unsuitable”, regardless of their real qualifications. Similarly, beyond minorities and racialized groups, it should be recognized that women and immigrant populations remain just as vulnerable to inequality in the workplace in Quebec. A recent study by Verret (2015) shows that the proportion of recent immigrant women who were working in a job not related to their field of study rose from 36% to 44% between 1991 and 2015, while this proportion increased from 22% to 28% for their male counterparts (Verret. L, 2015). Immigrants’ national origin, therefore, is an important factor in economic stratification. Moreover, at the bottom of the hierarchy we essentially find the same groups as are found in a similar position in the rest of Canada.
This newsletter’s objective is to paint a statistical portrait of the last twenty years in order to show the levels and trends of indicators of inequality in terms of access to employment and other socio-economic indicators of the majority population, racialized groups and immigrants in Quebec.
To accomplish what we set out to do, we synthesized literature about racial discrimination in the workplace published in Quebec. The databases on Jstor, Google Scholar and Google were searched using the following groups of keywords: “Work in Quebec”, “Inequalities in Employment in Quebec”, “Racial Discrimination in Employment in Quebec”, “Wage Inequalities and Access to the Labor Market in Quebec.”
We then combined this literature review with information from two databases, one which was longitudinal, to calculate the indicators over a given observation period (2006-2020). This study is called the Labour Force Survey (2020) and was conducted by Statistics Canada, developed by the Institut de la Statistique du Québec (ISQ) and updated on March 15, 2021. The second data source was the Individual trajectories and dynamics of participation of men and women in Québec society survey (TraJIpaQ, 2020).
PORTRAIT OF LEVELS AND TRENDS OF INDICATORS OF EMPLOYMENT INEQUALITY IN QUEBEC
Participation in the labor market
The Quebec “workforce” counts 4.44 million, including 900,000 immigrants, just over 20% of the total working population. According to the Quebec Labour Norms Commission (CNT) survey, in 2012, 32% of employees from employment agencies were immigrants (CNT, 2013). Participation in the labor market is seen as an essential element in immigrants’ integration process, allowing them to define themselves and to gain social status, which is a major determinant of social integration (Paugam, 2007). According to the latest updates of the results from the Labour Force Survey, during the first five months of 2021, compared to the same period in 2020, 185,900 jobs were created in Quebec. This increase is mainly due to full-time employment (+143,600) and to a lesser extent part-time employment (+42,200) (Statistics Canada, 2021).
Be that as it may, disparities exist in labour force status in this province and this has been notoriously unfavorable to immigrant groups according to the 2016 census and the results of the Labour Force Surveys (2006-2020). By analyzing changes in the participation rate indicator over the past twenty years, data available from the Labour Force Survey (2021) confirms disparities between immigrant populations and people born in Canada.
Thus, immigrants’ participation rate in Quebec is both below the provincial average and below that of non-immigrants between 2006 and 2015 (respectively 62% against 65% in 2006 and 64.6% against 64.8% in 2015). However, from 2016, data from the Labour Force Survey shows that the immigrant population’s participation rate level has risen above that of the Canadian-born population (respectively 65.8% against 64.2% in 2016 and 67.8% compared to 62.8% in 2020 as shown in Graph 1).
Analysis of migratory status by sex shows that, in Quebec, between 2006 and 2009, the participation rate was higher for men born in Canada compared to their counterparts born outside Canada.
Graph 1: Level and trend of the participation rate (%) in the province of Quebec: inequalities between immigrant and Canadian-born populations.
Source : Labor Force Survey, (Statistics Canada, 2020), updated: March 15, 2021
This rate was 68.1% for immigrant men compared to 70.1% for non-immigrants in 2009 (see Table 1). Nevertheless, this trend was reversed in 2010 when immigrant men’s participation rate increased to surpass that of their Canadian-born counterparts regardless of the year considered (70.8% against 69.7% in 2010 and 73 .4% compared to 66.2% in 2020) with a gap that continues to widen in favor of immigrant men.
At the same time, immigrant women’s participation rate in Quebec was lower than that of their Canadian counterparts between 2006 to 2016 (53.8% compared to 60.7% in 2006 and 60% compared to 60.6% in 2016), but this trend changed in 2017 when the rate for immigrant women increased continuously (61.8% to 62.3%) surpassing that of their counterparts born in Canada.
Table 1: Participation rate (%) in Quebec between 2006 and 2020 by migration status by sex
Immigrants | |||
Men | Women | Total | |
2006 | 70.5 | 53.8 | 61.9 |
2007 | 67.7 | 55 | 61.3 |
2008 | 68.7 | 55.1 | 61.9 |
2009 | 68.1 | 54.9 | 61.3 |
2010 | 70.8 | 56.5 | 63.6 |
2011 | 69.8 | 57.8 | 63.7 |
2012 | 69.5 | 58.4 | 63.8 |
2013 | 72.3 | 56.6 | 64.4 |
2014 | 69.7 | 57.2 | 63.4 |
2015 | 71.6 | 57.8 | 64.6 |
2016 | 71.8 | 60 | 65.8 |
2017 | 73.4 | 61.8 | 67.4 |
2018 | 73.4 | 62.3 | 67.7 |
2019 | 73.8 | 62.2 | 67.8 |
2020 | 73.4 | 62.3 | 67.8 |
Born in Canada | |||
Men | Women | Total | |
2006 | 71.1 | 60.7 | 65.8 |
2007 | 71 | 61.5 | 66.2 |
2008 | 70.8 | 61.4 | 66 |
2009 | 70.1 | 61.3 | 65.6 |
2010 | 69.7 | 61.2 | 65.4 |
2011 | 69.5 | 60.7 | 65.1 |
2012 | 69.1 | 60.9 | 64.9 |
2013 | 69 | 61.3 | 65.1 |
2014 | 68.6 | 61 | 64.8 |
2015 | 68.5 | 61.1 | 64.8 |
2016 | 67.8 | 60.6 | 64.2 |
2017 | 68 | 60.5 | 64.2 |
2018 | 67.6 | 60.4 | 64 |
2019 | 67.6 | 60.9 | 64.2 |
2020 | 66.2 | 59.5 | 62.8 |
Source : Labor Force Survey, (Statistics Canada, 2020), updated: March 15, 2021
The scientific literature also shows that, in Quebec, visible minority status and region of origin are often determining variables in inequality and discrimination experienced in professional integration. According to Gagnon et al., people from Western Europe and the United States have an advantage (Gagnon et al, 2017) compared to those of Asian, Oceanic and African origin. More than half of women from Eastern Europe and the former USSR, West Asia, the Middle East, East Asia and Oceania, failed to obtain a job they were qualified for even four years after their arrival, for several reasons including racial discrimination (Gagnon et al, 2017).
Unemployment: level and trend
Compared to the average for the first five months of 2020, the general level of unemployment in Quebec fell by 2.8 points to 6.9% compared to 8.3% in Canada (Statistics Canada, 2021). Census data twenty years earlier, in 2001, indicates that, at the time, the unemployment rate for immigrants in Quebec was higher than that of the general population (12% versus 8% ), and that the unemployment rate of the racialized visible minority population was even higher, at 14% for racialized groups born in Canada versus 15.4% for those born abroad (Statistics Canada, 2001; Morin and Lenoir, 2008). Between 2001 and 2012, the unemployment rate in Quebec for immigrant populations did not improve over time. It increased by 0.9, in other words, it went from 12% in 2001 to 12.9% in 2006, then decreased slightly and stood at 11.7% in 2012 (Boudarbat and Connolly, 2013).
From 2013 to 2020, data analyzed from the Labor Force Survey also shows that the unemployment rate in Quebec has been in continuous decline, but the unemployment rate for immigrants is still higher than it is for Canadians, residents of Quebec and is higher than the provincial average (Graph 2).
Graph 2: Level and trends in the unemployment rate in the province of Quebec: Inequalities between immigrant populations and those born in Canada
Source: Exploitation de l'Enquête sur la population active, (Statistique Canada, 2020), mise à jour :15 mars 2021
Although the increase in the unemployment rate in 2020 could be due to the economic crisis caused by the Covid-19 crisis, the fact remains that its impact affects populations unequally, and immigrants remain more vulnerable.
The literature also demonstrates that Black racialized groups were more at risk of being unemployed than other groups in 2016 (Boudarbat and Connolly, 2013). Other studies have shown that, in 2006, North Africans in Quebec had the highest unemployment rate among very recent immigrants and recent immigrants (27.9% and 18.7% compared to 6.3% for the Canadian-born population) (Statistics Canada, 2008b).
Of note is that the literature highlights the Indigenous populations of Quebec’s vulnerability to unemployment. Statistics show that the unemployment rate is about twice as high for Indigenous men compared to their non-Indigenous counterparts (14.8% versus 6.8%). This situation is also evident in the category of women with an unemployment rate of 9.3% for Indigenous people compared to 5.2% for their non-Indigenous counterparts (Statistics Canada, 2016).
Salary Gaps
In 2020, the average hourly wage in Quebec was $28.2. Differential analysis for men and women shows a significant disparity with men’s average hourly wage at $29.36 (higher than the provincial average) against $26.98 for women, i.e. an hourly difference of $2.38 less for women (Statistics Canada, 2021). Notwithstanding the fact that discrimination against women in terms of equal pay is not a recent phenomenon. The study of changes in wages between 2006 and 2020 shows that over fifteen years, the average hourly wage of women remains lower than men’s whatever year is considered ($17.42 versus $20.2 $; $20.92 versus $23.82 and $26.98 versus $29.36 respectively in 2006, 2013 and 2020) (Graph 3).
Taking immigration status into account, discrimination was noted against immigrants when compared to Quebecers born in Canada. Statistics on the changes in wage gaps between recent immigrants and non-immigrants show that, despite the fact that the average hourly wage has changed globally for both groups, the fact remains that the latter is much lower for recent immigrants. It was $14.95 compared to $18.95 in 2006; $18.24 versus 22.62% in 2013 and, in 2020, stands at $24.67 for recent immigrants versus $28.41 for Canadians.
Graph 3: Level and trend of average hourly wages ($) in the province of Quebec for immigrant populations and those born in Canada
Source: Exploitation de l'Enquête sur la population active, (Statistique Canada, 2020), mise à jour :15 mars 2021
Other sources in the review that follow Cardena’s work (2018) establish that despite Canada and Quebec’s stated desire to invest more, year after year, in the settlement of immigrant workers, the wage gap between immigrants who arrived in the 1960s and those who arrived in the 1990s increased (-27% disadvantaging the latter) (Boudarbat and Boulet, 2007).
Analysis of immigration status by sex shows that men born in Canada have a higher hourly wage compared to their counterparts who are recent immigrants, regardless of the year considered between 2006 and 2020 (see Table 2). Men born in Canada earned $20.32 per hour in 2006 compared to $15.7 per hour for those born outside of Canada. Although the hourly wage has increased over time in both categories, wage discrimination against immigrant men, who are paid less for the same service, compared to those born in Canada has been constant ($25 compared to $29 in 2020).
Table 2: Evolution of the average hourly wage ($) in Quebec between 2006 and 2020 by migration status by sex
Immigrants | |||
Men | Women | Total | |
2006 | 15.71 | 13.98 | 14.95 |
2007 | 16.75 | 14.47 | 15.78 |
2008 | 17.92 | 15.85 | 17.07 |
2009 | 18.73 | 15.49 | 17.29 |
2010 | 17.94 | 16.13 | 17.1 |
2011 | 18.58 | 15.11 | 17.09 |
2012 | 19.62 | 17.81 | 18.81 |
2013 | 19.19 | 16.91 | 18.24 |
2014 | 20.36 | 18.63 | 19.65 |
2015 | 21.11 | 17.57 | 19.72 |
2016 | 20.66 | 18.7 | 19.89 |
2017 | 22.28 | 18.75 | 20.81 |
2018 | 23.14 | 19.27 | 21.42 |
2019 | 24.06 | 20.55 | 22.38 |
2020 | 25.65 | 23.43 | 24.67 |
Born in Canada | |||
Men | Women | Total | |
2006 | 20.32 | 17.51 | 18.95 |
2007 | 20.84 | 18.1 | 19.49 |
2008 | 21.5 | 18.65 | 20.09 |
2009 | 22.33 | 19.44 | 20.89 |
2010 | 22.65 | 19.8 | 21.23 |
2011 | 22.91 | 20.08 | 21.51 |
2012 | 23.51 | 20.97 | 22.26 |
2013 | 24.13 | 21.09 | 22.62 |
2014 | 24.64 | 21.97 | 23.31 |
2015 | 24.91 | 22.58 | 23.75 |
2016 | 25.79 | 22.95 | 24.39 |
2017 | 26.4 | 23.65 | 25.06 |
2018 | 27.03 | 24.18 | 25.64 |
2019 | 28.18 | 25.44 | 26.83 |
2020 | 29.67 | 27.11 | 28.41 |
Source : Labor Force Survey, (Statistics Canada, 2020), updated: March 15, 2021
The scenario is identical when immigrant women’s wages are analyzed and compared to those of their non-immigrant counterparts with an average wage differential less per hour of $4 for women born outside of Canada ($23.4 versus $27.1 in 2020). Similarly, in Quebec, arguments that add support to the fact of systemic racism include data on the under-representation of immigrants and racialized people in political decision-making positions (Armony, 2010).
Discrimination in terms of a wage gap also affects racialized Indigenous groups. The median annual income of Indigenous people in Quebec was $25,386 in 2015, which is 14.3% lower than that of non-Indigenous people ($29,632) (Boisclair et al, 2019). However, inequalities reflected in wage gaps vary from one nation to another and the Inuit are disadvantaged the most.
Factors associated with inequality on the job market in Quebec
Discrimination
Recent statistics from the Individual trajectories and dynamics of participation of men and women in Québec society survey (TraJIpaQ, 2020) show how vulnerable visible racialized minorities as well as ethnic minorities are to racial discrimination when they are looking for work. Concretely, 32.1% of visible minorities residing in Quebec claim to have suffered racial discrimination while looking for work compared to only 17% of people who are considered to be a member of the majority population.
Graph 4: Proportion (%) of respondents who said they had experienced discrimination in the job search process by visible minority and immigrant status
Source: Labour Force Survey, (Statistics Canada, 2020), updated : March 15, 2021
Source : Labor Force Survey, (Statistics Canada, 2020), updated: March 15, 2021
Further, taking racialized minorities’ racial origin into account, other studies show that in 2014, 13% of Black Canadians, compared to 6% of their counterparts who were not Black, reported having experienced discrimination at work (Turcotte, 2020). The 2020 TrajIPaQ survey also shows that the racial discrimination experienced by visible racialized minorities varies according to their origin and provenance. Therefore, 83% of Black Caribbean people believe that they have been discriminated against on the basis of race while looking for a job in Quebec, followed by South Asians and Japanese (50%); and Latin Americans and Arabs (43% and 38% respectively). Twenty-five percent of Black Africans and Chinese claim to have been discriminated against during a hiring process.
Other studies highlight the fact that job seekers from racialized visible minority groups may be discriminated against from the first phase of recruitment, on the basis of having a “foreign” sounding name or during an interview, when it is noted that they belong to a visible minority (Lenoir-Achdjian et al, 2008).
Language as a factor in discrimination in the workplace
According to Bourhis et al., in Quebec, 41% of racialized visible minorities with English as their mother tongue report having been victims of discrimination compared to 28% of racialized visible minorities with French as their mother tongue (Bourhis et al., 2005). Vaillancourt et al. (2007) show that language is a factor in racism in the workplace in Quebec. These authors estimate, for example, that unilingual Francophones earn 18% more than unilingual Anglophones in Quebec and that bilingual Francophones earn 12% more than their bilingual Anglophone counterparts (Vaillancourt al, 2007).
Hence, according to these authors, language is highlighted as a major obstacle to access to employment for immigrants (nearly half of immigrants in Quebec, i.e. 49, 7%, emphasizing language as a problem encountered when looking for work).
Education level and professional experience
According to Green and Zhu (2010), in terms of education levels, several studies show that people with university degrees are often overqualified for their jobs. Previous work, such as Boudarbat and Connolly’s work on the issue (2013), shows that, in general, recent immigrants’ education levels are often higher than those of the Canadian-born population. Therefore, the increase in the number of university graduates, including those who obtained their degrees abroad, raises concerns that the Canadian economy may not be creating enough jobs for university graduates, and that too many graduates are forced to take lower-level jobs, especially immigrant populations (LaRochelle-Coté and Hango, 2016).
These “overqualified” university graduates would be at increased risk of unemployment, lower earnings, loss of skills, and lower levels of job satisfaction. Consequently, the fact that they come from a less developed country, for example, predisposes immigrants to unemployment and overqualification in Quebec, and statistics show that 18.8% of North Africans are victims of overqualification compared to only 4.3% of Americans and Europeans (Boudarbat and Boulet, 2010).
Skin color and religious symbols
According to statistics and academic literature, skin color is a potential source of discrimination in hiring or in the workplace. According to Raileanu (2019), negative reactions to skin color are noted as factors in racial discrimination experienced in the job search process or in the workplace by 27% of African women and by 25% of Asian women compared to by 4% of Latin American women. Importantly, the wearing of religious symbols, in particular the veil, is a characteristic of the experience of racism in hiring in Quebec. To emphasize this point, of African women who have suffered racial discrimination in the workplace (31%), 85% are North Africans who wear the veil (Raileanu, 2019).
CONCLUSION
This study analyzed the levels and trends of indicators of socio-economic disparities and racial discrimination in employment in Quebec. It compiled the statistics and indicators associated with participation in the labor market, unemployment, wage gaps and factors in discrimination in the workplace. Inequalities, in sum, characterize employment indicators comparing immigrants and non-immigrants: in 2016, 85% of the majority population were employed compared to 62% of immigrants (Statistics Canada, 2016 ). Yet, figures from the last five years show that, in Quebec, immigrants’ participation in the labor market has increased to the point that it is greater than the participation of Canadian-born populations, with a participation rate in 2020 of 67.8% versus 62.8% (Statistics Canada, 2021).
In terms of unemployment, it appears that, in Quebec, there is a significant gap between men and women (a gap disadvantaging men). The unemployment rate is, accordingly, lower for women than it is for men and the numbers are similar when immigrants are compared to non-immigrants, with immigrants having a higher unemployment rate compared to those born in Canada (Boudarbat and Connolly, 2013).
With respect to wage levels, it suggests that, despite equal job qualifications, women are discriminated against with an average hourly wage that is lower than their male counterparts. Similarly, in the period from 2006 to 2020, wages inequalities that disadvantage immigrant populations are apparent. Furthermore, immigrants are paid $4 per hour less than their Canadian-born counterparts (Statistics Canada, 2021).
Finally, language is a potential factor in discrimination in the workplace in Quebec. Populations having English as their mother tongue, thus who are linguistic minorities in Quebec, report having been victims of discrimination in the workplace up to 12% compared to 7% of Quebec Francophones (Bourhis et al., 2005). Overqualification, non-recognition of diplomas obtained abroad (mostly affecting immigrants), skin color (Raileanu, 2019), as well as wearing visible religious symbols, such as wearing a veil, are also characteristic of racism experienced in the recruitment process in Quebec.
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